Ion beam focus adjustment

ABSTRACT

The disclosure features systems and methods that include: exposing a biological sample to an ion beam that is incident on the sample at a first angle to a plane of the sample by translating a position of the ion beam on the sample in a first direction relative to a projection of a direction of incidence of the ion beam on the sample; after each translation of the ion beam in the first direction, adjusting a focal length of an ion source that generates the ion beam; and measuring and analyzing secondary ions generated from the sample by the ion beam after adjustment of the focal length to determine mass spectral information for the sample, where the sample is labeled with one or more mass tags and the mass spectral information includes populations of the mass tags at locations of the sample.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.62/621,687, filed on Jan. 25, 2018, the entire contents of which areincorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure relates to scanning of biological samples using an ionbeam, and to determining mass spectrometry information for the samplesbased on ion beam exposure.

BACKGROUND

Immunohistochemistry methods have been used to visualize proteinexpression in biological samples such as tumor tissue biopsies. Suchmethods typically involve exposing a sample to antibodies coupled tofluorescent moieties or enzyme reporters that generate colored pigments.Analysis of spectral images of the tagged sample yields information thatcan be used to assess protein expression levels and co-expressionevents. A variety of samples can be analyzed using such methods,including formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections.

SUMMARY

This disclosure features multiplexed ion beam imaging methods foranalyzing protein expression and other biological events and structuresin biological samples. Samples are tagged with antibodies conjugated tomass tags such as lanthanide elements and then exposed to a beam ofprimary ions. The primary ions are incident on the sample and generatesecondary ions based on the mass tags. Spatially- and mass-resolvedanalysis of the secondary ions from the sample can provide informationabout protein expression and other biological events at specific samplelocations.

To enhance the yield of secondary ions from a sample, the sample can betilted relative to the orientation of an incident primary ion beam.However, when the region of the sample exposed to the primary ion beamis sufficiently extended in a direction parallel to the axis of theprimary ion beam, imaging artifacts arising from the tilted orientationof the sample can arise. Specifically, due to the tilted orientation,not all exposed portions of the sample may be located in the focal planeof the primary ion beam. This situation can lead to blurring andcompromised spatial resolution in sample images, and may impedesubsequent image analysis and information extraction.

This disclosure features methods and systems in which the focal lengthof an ion source is adjusted during scanning of the ion beam to ensurethat exposed regions of a tilted sample remain at, or close to, a focalplane of the ion source. Focal length adjustment is performed based onthe position of the ion beam relative to the sample. Depending upon theorientation of the ion beam relative to the sample, focal lengthadjustment can be performed for displacements of the ion beam from areference position in one coordinate direction or in both coordinatedirections.

In general, in a first aspect, the disclosure features methods thatinclude: exposing a biological sample to an ion beam that is incident onthe sample at a first angle to a plane of the sample by translating aposition of the ion beam on the sample in a first direction relative toa projection of a direction of incidence of the ion beam on the sample;after each translation of the ion beam in the first direction, adjustinga focal length of an ion source that generates the ion beam; andmeasuring and analyzing secondary ions generated from the sample by theion beam after adjustment of the focal length to determine mass spectralinformation for the sample, where the sample is labeled with one or moremass tags and the mass spectral information includes populations of themass tags at locations of the sample.

Embodiments of the methods can include any one or more of the followingfeatures.

An angle between the first direction and the projection of the directionof incidence of the ion beam on the sample can be 20 degrees or less.The first direction and the projection of the direction of incidence ofthe ion beam on the sample can be approximately parallel.

Translating the position of the ion beam can include adjusting an angleof the ion beam relative to an axis of the ion source.

The methods can include translating the position of the ion beam on thesample in a second direction relative to the projection of the directionof incidence of the ion beam on the sample. An angle between the seconddirection and the projection of the direction of incidence of the ionbeam on the sample can be 70 degrees or more. The second direction andthe projection of the direction of incidence of ion beam on the samplecan be approximately orthogonal.

The position of the ion beam can be translated across the sample in atwo-dimensional exposure pattern. The two-dimensional exposure patterncan be a rectangular exposure pattern. A maximum length of thetwo-dimensional exposure pattern in the first direction can be at least100 microns (e.g., at least 500 microns).

The first angle can be between 30 degrees and 60 degrees. The firstangle can be approximately 45 degrees.

The methods can include adjusting the focal length of the ion source byadjusting a numerical aperture of the ion source. The methods caninclude adjusting the focal length of the ion source by adjusting avoltage applied to at least one electrode in the ion source.

The methods can include adjusting the ion source to reduce sphericalaberration of the ion beam on the sample. The methods can includeadjusting voltages applied to one or more electrodes in the ion sourceto reduce the spherical aberration of the ion beam on the sample.

The methods can include adjusting the ion source to compensate forcurvature of a focal plane of the ion source. The methods can includeadjusting voltages applied to one or more electrodes in the ion sourceto compensate for the curvature of the focal plane.

The methods can include adjusting the focal length of the ion sourceafter at least some translations of the position of the ion beam in thesecond direction. The methods can include determining, after translatingthe position of the ion beam in the second direction, whether to adjustthe focal length of the ion source based on a location of the ion beamon the sample.

Measuring and analyzing the secondary ions can include detecting atleast some of the secondary ions emerging from the sample along adirection approximately orthogonal to the plane of the sample.

The one or more mass tags can include at least one type ofantibody-conjugated lanthanide element, and the at least some of thesecondary ions can include at least one type of lanthanide ion.

Embodiments of the methods can also include any of the other featuresdisclosed herein, including features disclosed in connection withdifferent embodiments, in any combination except as expressly statedotherwise.

In another aspect, the disclosure features systems that include an ionsource configured to generate an ion beam, a stage positioned to supporta biological sample, an ion detector configured to detect ions generatedfrom the sample, and a controller connected to the ion source, thestage, and the ion detector, and configured so that during operation,the controller: (a) directs the ion source to expose the sample to theion beam, where the ion beam is incident on the sample at a first angleto a plane of the sample, and where the controller directs the ionsource to translate a position of the ion beam on the sample in a firstdirection relative to a projection of a direction of incidence of theion beam on the sample; (b) adjusts a focal length of the ion sourceafter each translation of the ion beam in the first direction; (c)receives a signal from the ion detector that includes information aboutsecondary ions generated from the sample in response to the ion beamexposure after adjustment of the focal length; and (d) analyzes thesignal to determine mass spectral information for the sample, where thesample is labeled with one or more mass tags and the mass spectralinformation includes populations of the mass tags at locations of thesample.

Embodiments of the systems can include any one or more of the followingfeatures.

An angle between the first direction and the projection of the directionof incidence of the ion beam on the sample can be 20 degrees or less.The first direction and the projection of the direction of incidence ofthe ion beam on the sample can be approximately parallel.

The controller can be configured to direct the ion source to translatethe position of the ion beam on the sample by adjusting an angle of theion beam relative to an axis of the ion source. The controller can beconfigured to direct the ion source to translate the position of the ionbeam on the sample in a second direction relative to the projection ofthe direction of incidence of the ion beam on the sample. An anglebetween the second direction and the projection of the direction ofincidence of the ion beam on the sample can be 70 degrees or more. Thesecond direction and the projection of the direction of incidence of ionbeam on the sample can be approximately orthogonal.

The controller can be configured to direct the ion source to translatethe position of the ion beam across the sample in a two-dimensionalexposure pattern. The two-dimensional exposure pattern can be arectangular exposure pattern. A maximum length of the two-dimensionalexposure pattern in the first direction can be at least 100 microns(e.g., at least 500 microns).

The first angle can be between 30 degrees and 60 degrees. The firstangle can be approximately 45 degrees.

The controller can be configured to adjust the focal length of the ionsource by adjusting a numerical aperture of the ion source. Thecontroller can be configured to adjust the focal length of the ionsource by adjusting a voltage applied to at least one electrode in theion source.

The controller can be configured to adjust the ion source to reducespherical aberration of the ion beam on the sample. The controller canbe configured to adjust voltages applied to one or more electrodes inthe ion source to reduce the spherical aberration of the ion beam on thesample.

The controller can be configured to adjust the ion source to compensatefor curvature of a focal plane of the ion source. The controller can beconfigured to adjust voltages applied to one or more electrodes in theion source to compensate for the curvature of the focal plane.

The controller can be configured to adjust the focal length of the ionsource after at least some translations of the position of the ion beamin the second direction. The controller can be configured to determine,after the position of the ion beam has been translated in the seconddirection, whether to adjust the focal length of the ion source based ona location of the ion beam on the sample.

The ion detector can be configured to detect at least some of thesecondary ions emerging from the sample along a direction approximatelyorthogonal to the plane of the sample. The one or more mass tags caninclude at least one type of antibody-conjugated lanthanide element, andthe at least some of the secondary ions can include at least one type oflanthanide ion.

Embodiments of the systems can also include any of the other featuresdisclosed herein, including features disclosed in connection withdifferent embodiments, in any combination except as expressly statedotherwise.

In a further aspect, the disclosure features methods that include:exposing a first set of regions of a biological sample positioned in asample plane to an ion beam from an ion source, where an axis of the ionsource is aligned along a first direction inclined at a first anglerelative to the sample plane, and where exposing the first set ofregions includes translating a location of incidence of the ion beam onthe sample along a second direction in the sample plane that isapproximately orthogonal to a projection of the first direction onto thesample plane; translating the location of incidence of the ion beam onthe sample along a third direction in the sample plane that isapproximately parallel to the projection of the first direction onto thesample plane; adjusting a focal length of the ion source based on thetranslated location of incidence of the ion beam on the sample along thethird direction; and, after adjusting the focal length, exposing asecond set of regions of the biological sample to the ion beam, whereexposing the second set of regions includes translating the location ofincidence of the ion beam on the sample along the second direction inthe sample plane, the biological sample is labeled with one or more masstags, and exposing at least some of the first and second pluralities ofregions to the ion beam generates secondary ions corresponding to theone or more mass tags.

Embodiments of the methods can include any one or more of the followingfeatures.

Translating the location of incidence of the ion beam on the samplealong the third direction can include adjusting an angle of the ion beamrelative to the axis of the ion source. The first angle can be between30 degrees and 60 degrees.

Exposing the first and second sets of regions can include translatingthe location of incidence of the ion beam on the sample along the seconddirection over a length of 100 microns or more (e.g., over a length of500 microns or more). Translating the location of incidence of the ionbeam on the sample along the second direction can include adjusting anangle of the ion beam relative to the axis of the ion source.

The methods can include exposing additional sets of regions of thebiological sample to the ion beam by: (a) translating the location ofincidence of the ion beam on the sample along the third direction priorto exposing each additional set of regions; (b) adjusting the focallength of the ion source; and (c) exposing an additional set of regionsof the biological sample to the ion beam, where exposing the additionalset of regions includes translating the location of incidence of the ionbeam on the sample along the second direction in the sample plane.

The first, second, and additional sets of regions can form atwo-dimensional exposure pattern of the ion beam on the sample. A lengthof the exposure pattern measured in the third direction can be 100microns or more (e.g., 500 microns or more).

The methods can include adjusting the focal length of the ion source byadjusting a numerical aperture of the ion source. The methods caninclude adjusting the focal length of the ion source by adjusting avoltage applied to at least one electrode in the ion source.

The methods can include adjusting the focal length of the ion sourcebetween exposing each one of the first set of regions to the ion beamand between exposing each one of the second set of regions to the ionbeam.

The methods can include collecting at least some of the secondary ionsand analyzing the secondary ions to obtain mass spectral information forthe mass tags labeling the sample. Collecting and analyzing the at leastsome of the secondary ions can include detecting the at least some ofthe secondary ions emerging from the sample along a fourth directionthat is approximately orthogonal to the sample plane.

The one or more mass tags can include at least one type ofantibody-conjugated lanthanide element, and the at least some secondaryions can include at least one type of lanthanide ion.

Embodiments of the methods can also include any of the other featuresdisclosed herein, including features disclosed in connection withdifferent embodiments, in any combination except as expressly statedotherwise.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materialssimilar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in thepractice or testing of the subject matter herein, suitable methods andmaterials are described below. All publications, patent applications,patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated byreference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the presentspecification, including definitions, will control. In addition, thematerials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intendedto be limiting.

In general, method steps described herein and in the claims can beperformed in any order, except where expressly prohibited or logicallyinconsistent. It should be noted that describing steps in a particularorder does not mean that such steps must be performed in the describedorder. Moreover, the labeling of steps with identifiers does not imposean order on the steps, or imply that the steps must be performed in acertain sequence. To the contrary, the steps disclosed herein cangenerally be performed in any order except where noted otherwise.

The details of one or more embodiments are set forth in the accompanyingdrawings and the description below. Other features and advantages willbe apparent from the description, drawings, and claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an example of a multiplexed ion beamimaging system.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-sectional diagram of a sample on asubstrate.

FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-sectional diagram of a sample with one ormore conformal coating layers.

FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram showing an example of an ion beamexposure pattern on a sample.

FIG. 4B is a schematic diagram showing another example of an ion beamexposure pattern on a sample in which rows of the exposure pattern areoffset.

FIG. 4C is a schematic diagram showing an example of a radial ion beamexposure pattern.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing an example of a portion of ionbeam optics for a multiplexed ion beam imaging system.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing an example of a primary ion beamincident at an angle on a surface of a sample.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram showing multiple locations of incidence ofa primary ion beam on a surface of a sample.

FIG. 8 is a flow chart showing a series of example steps for adjustingthe focal length of a primary ion beam during scanning of the beam overa sample.

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram showing a top view of a sample andmultiple locations of incidence of a primary ion beam on the sample.

Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION (i) Introduction

Multiplexed visualization of protein expression and other biochemicalmoieties and structures allows researchers to identify importantcorrelations between biological functional events. Visualization ofprotein expression can be used to assess malignancies in excised tissuesamples as part of a diagnostic work-up, and in particular, to provideimportant information about signaling pathways and correlated structuraldevelopment in tumor tissue.

Conventional multiplexed immunohistochemical techniques for visualizingprotein expression typically rely on optical detection of fluorescenceemission from a sample that has been labeled with multipleantibody-conjugated flurophores. The conjugated fluorophores bindspecifically to corresponding antigens in the sample, and imaging offluorescence emission from the sample is used to assess the spatialdistribution of the fluorophores. For samples in which antigenconcentrations are relatively low, signal amplification (e.g., usingmultivalent, enzyme-linked secondary antibodies) can be used to aidvisualization. However, the use of signal amplification techniques cancompromise quantitative information (e.g., antigen concentrationinformation) that might otherwise be extracted from sample images.

In conventional multiplexed immunohistochemical visualizationtechniques, other constraints can also be encountered. Optical detectionand separation of spectral signatures of multiple fluorophores is acomplex problem, particularly where the fluorescence spectra of thefluorophores exhibit significant overlap. Without robust discriminationbetween spectral signatures of the fluorophores, importantexpression-related information is not uncovered. Further, suchtechniques often rely on primary antibodies generated in dissimilar hostspecies. These factors can limit the utility of conventional multiplexedimmunohistochemical visualization techniques for predictive biomarkerdevelopment and clinical diagnostics.

This disclosure features methods for performing multiplexedvisualization of antigens and other biochemical structures and moietiesin biological samples using secondary ion mass spectrometry.Structure-specific antibodies are conjugated to specific mass tags,typically in the form of metallic elements (e.g., lanthanide elements).When a sample is exposed to the conjugated antibody-mass tag labels, thelabels bind to corresponding antigens. Exposure of the labeled sample toa primary ion beam liberates secondary ions corresponding to theconjugated mass tags from the labeled sample. Performingspatially-resolved detection of the secondary ions that are generatedfrom the sample allows direct visualization of the localization ofspecific antigens in the sample, and extraction of quantitativeinformation (e.g., antigen concentration) as a function of spatiallocation. This information can be combined with other structuralinformation (e.g., information about tumor margins, celltypes/morphologies) to develop a detailed assessment of tumor viabilityand progression in the sample.

The methods disclosed herein, which are referred to as multiplexed ionbeam imaging (MIBI) methods, can be used to resolve spatialdistributions of relatively large numbers of mass tags applied tosamples. For example, visual and quantitative assessment of up to 100different mass tags in a single sample are possible. Depending upon thenature of the mass tags applied to the sample, sensitivities in theparts-per-billion range can be achieved with a dynamic range ofapproximately 10⁵. Imaging resolution is typically comparable to opticalmicroscopy at high magnification.

The following sections of this disclosure describe examples of systemsfor multiplexed ion beam imaging, components of the systems, and methodsfor performing multiplexed ion beam imaging and sample preparation.

(ii) Multiplexed Ion Beam Imaging Systems

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing an example system 100 formultiplexed ion beam imaging. System 100 includes an ion beam source102, ion beam optics 104, a stage 106, a voltage source 108, ioncollecting optics 110, and a detection apparatus 112. Each of thesecomponents is connected to a controller 114 via signal lines 120 a-120f. During operation of system 100, controller 114 can adjust operatingparameters of each of ion beam source 102, ion beam optics 104, stage106, voltage source 108, ion collecting optics 110, and detectionapparatus 112. Further controller 114 can exchange information with eachof the foregoing components of system 100 via signal lines 120 a-120 f.

During operation, ion beam source 102 generates an ion beam 116 thatincludes a plurality of primary ions 116 a. Ion beam 116 is incident ona sample 150 that is positioned on stage 106. Optionally, in certainembodiments, voltage source 108 applies an electrical potential to asubstrate 152 that supports sample 150. Primary ions 116 a in ion beam116 interact with sample 150, generating secondary ions 118 a as asecondary ion beam 118. Secondary ion beam 118 is collected by ioncollecting optics 110 and directed into detection apparatus 112.Detection apparatus 112 measures one or more ion counts corresponding tosecondary ions 118 a in secondary ion beam 118 and generates electricalsignals corresponding the measured ion counts. Controller 114 receivesthe measured electrical signals from detection apparatus 112 andanalyzes the electrical signals to determine information about secondaryions 118 a and sample 150.

Controller 114 can adjust a wide variety of different operatingparameters of the various components of system 100, and can transmitinformation (e.g., control signals) and receive information (e.g.,electrical signals corresponding to measurements and/or statusinformation) from the components of system 100. For example, in someembodiments, controller 114 can activate ion beam source 102 and canadjust operating parameters of ion beam source 102, such as an ioncurrent of ion beam 116, a beam waist of ion beam 116, and a propagationdirection of ion beam 116 relative to central axis 122 of ion beamsource 102. In general, controller 114 adjusts the operating parametersof ion beam source 102 by transmitting suitable control signals to ionbeam source 102 via signal line 120 a. In addition, controller 114 canreceive information from ion beam source 102 (including informationabout the ion current of ion beam 116, the beam waist of ion beam 116,the propagation direction of ion beam 116, and various electricalpotentials applied to the components of ion beam source 102) via signalline 120 a.

Ion beam optics 104 generally include a variety of elements that useelectric fields and/or magnetic fields to control attributes of ion beam116. In some embodiments, for example, ion beam optics 104 include oneor more beam focusing elements that adjust a spot size of ion beam 116at a location of incidence 124 of ion beam 116 on sample 150. In certainembodiments, ion beam optics 104 include one or more beam deflectingelements that deflect ion beam 116 relative to axis 122, therebyadjusting the location of incidence 124 of ion beam 116 on sample. Ionbeam optics 104 can also include a variety of other elements, includingone or more apertures, extraction electrodes, beam blocking elements,and other elements that assist in directing ion beam 116 to be incidenton sample 150.

Controller 114 can generally adjust the properties of any of theforegoing elements via suitable control signals transmitted via signalline 120 b. For example, controller 114 can adjust the focusingproperties of one or more beam focusing elements of ion beam optics 104by adjusting electrical potentials applied to the beam focusing elementsvia signal line 120 b. Similarly, controller 114 can adjust thepropagation direction of ion beam 116 (and the location of incidence 124of ion beam 116 on sample 150) by adjusting electrical potentialsapplied to the beam deflection elements via signal line 120 b. Further,controller 114 can adjust positions of one or more apertures and/or beamblocking elements in ion beam optics 104, and adjust electricalpotentials applied to extraction electrodes in ion beam optics 104, viasuitable control signals transmitted on signal line 120 b. In additionto adjusting properties of ion beam optics 104, controller 114 canreceive information from various components of ion beam optics 104,including information about electrical potentials applied to thecomponents of ion beam optics 104 and/or information about positions ofthe components of ion beam optics 104.

Stage 106 includes a surface for supporting sample 150 (and substrate152). In general, stage 106 can be translated in each of the x-, y-, andz-coordinate directions. Controller 114 can translate stage 106 in an ofthe above directions by transmitting control signals on signal line 120d. To effect a translation of the location of incidence 124 of ion beam116 on sample 150, controller 114 can adjust one or more electricalpotentials applied to deflection elements of ion beam optics 104 (e.g.,to deflect ion beam 116 relative to axis 122), adjust the position ofstage 106 via control signals transmitted on signal line 120 d, and/oradjust both deflection elements of ion beam optics 104 and the positionof stage 106. In addition, controller 114 receives information about theposition of stage 106 transmitted along signal line 120 d.

In some embodiments, system 100 includes a voltage source 108 connectedto substrate 152 via electrodes 108 a and 108 b. When activated bycontroller 114 (via suitable control signals transmitted on signal line120 c), voltage source 108 applies an electrical potential to substrate152. The applied electrical potential assists in the capture ofsecondary ion beam 118 from sample 150, as the electrical potentialrepels secondary ions 118 a, causing the secondary ions to leave sample150 in the direction of ion collecting optics 110.

As shown in FIG. 1, sample 150 is typically a relatively planar samplethat extends in the x- and/or y-coordinate directions and has athickness measured in the z-coordinate direction. The support surface ofstage 106 likewise extends in the x- and y-coordinate directions.

Secondary ion beam 118 consisting of a plurality of secondary ions 118 ais captured by ion collecting optics 110. In general, ion collectingoptics 110 can include a variety of electric and magneticfield-generating elements for deflecting and focusing secondary ion beam118. In addition, ion collecting optics 100 can include one or moreapertures, beam blocking elements, and electrodes. As discussed above inconnection with ion beam optics 104, controller 114 can adjustelectrical potentials applied to each of the components of ioncollecting optics 110 via suitable control signals transmitted on signalline 120 e. Controller 114 can also adjust the positions of apertures,beam blocking elements, and other movable components of ion collectingoptics 110 by transmitting control signals on signal line 120 e. Inaddition, controller 114 can receive information about operatingparameters (e.g., voltages, positions) of various components of ioncollecting optics 110 on signal line 120 e.

Ion collecting optics 110 direct secondary ion beam 118 into detectionapparatus 112. Detection apparatus 112 measures ion counts or currentscorresponding to the various types of secondary ions 118 a in secondaryion beam 118, and generates output signals that contain informationabout the measured ion counts or currents. Controller 114 can adjustvarious operating parameters of detection apparatus 112, includingmaximum and minimum ion count detection thresholds, signal integrationtimes, the range of mass-to-charge (m/z) values over which ion countsare measured, the dynamic range over which ion counts are measured, andelectrical potentials applied to various components of detectionapparatus 112, by transmitting suitable control signals over signal line120 f.

Controller 114 receives the output signals from detection apparatus thatinclude information about the measured ion counts or currents on signalline 120 f. In addition, controller 114 also receives operatingparameter information for the various components of detection apparatus112 via signal line 120 f, including values of the various operatingparameters discussed above.

Detection apparatus 112 can include a variety of components formeasuring ion counts/currents corresponding to secondary ion beam 118.In some embodiments, for example, detection apparatus 112 can correspondto a time-of-flight (TOF) detector. In certain embodiments, detectionapparatus 112 can include one or more ion detectors such as Faradaycups, which generate electrical signals when ions are incident on theiractive surfaces. In some embodiments, detection apparatus 112 can beimplemented as a multiplying detector, in which incident ions enter anelectron multiplier where they generate a corresponding electron burst.The electron burst can be detected directly as an electrical signal, orcan be incident on a converter that generates photons (i.e., an opticalsignal) in response to the incident electrons. The photons are detectedwith an optical detector which generates the output electrical signal.

As discussed above, controller 114 is capable of adjusting a widevariety of operating parameters of system 100, receiving and monitoringvalues of the operating parameters, and receiving electrical signalscontaining information about secondary ions 118 a (and other species)generated from sample 150. Controller 114 analyzes the electricalsignals to extract the information about secondary ions 118 a and otherspecies. Based on the extracted information, controller 114 can adjustoperating parameters of system 100 to improve system performance (e.g.,m/z resolution, detection sensitivity) and to improve the accuracy andreproducibility of data (e.g., ion counts) measured by system 100.Controller 114 can also execute display operations to provide systemusers with images of sample 150 that show distributions of various masstags within sample 150, and storage operations to store informationrelating to the distributions in non-volatile storage media.

(iii) Sample Preparation

In general, the methods and systems disclosed are compatible with a widevariety of biological samples. Typically, sample 150 is a tissue sampleextracted from a human or animal patient. Sample 150 can correspond to asample of tumor tissue excised during biopsy, or another type of tissuesample retrieved via another invasive surgical or non-invasiveprocedure.

In some embodiments, sample 150 corresponds to a formalin-fixed,paraffin-embedded tissue sample. Such samples are commonly preparedduring histological workup of biopsied tissue from cancer tumors andother anatomical locations.

In certain embodiments, sample 150 corresponds to an array of singlecells on a substrate. The array can be naturally occurring, andcorrespond to a regularly occurring, ordered arrangement of cells in atissue sample. Alternatively, the array of cells can be a product ofsample preparation. That is, the sample can be prepared by manual orautomated placement of individual cells on substrate 152 (e.g., in aseries of wells or depressions formed in substrate 152) to form the cellarray.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-sectional diagram of sample 150 on substrate152. Positioned between substrate 152 and sample 150 in FIG. 2 is anoptional coating 154. When present, coating 154 can be electricallyconnected to voltage source 108 via electrodes 108 a and 108 b, as shownin FIG. 1.

Substrate 152 is typically implemented as a microscope slide or anotherplanar support structure, and can be formed from a variety of materialsincluding various types of glass, plastics, silicon, and metals.

Coating 154, if present, is typically formed of one or more metallicelements, or one or more non-metallic compounds of relatively highconductivity. Examples of metallic elements used to form coating 154include, but are not limited to, gold, tantalum, titanium, chromium,tin, and indium. In certain embodiments, coating 154 can be implementedas multiple distinct coating layers, each of which can be formed as aseparate layer of a metallic element or a separate layer of a relativelyhigh conductivity, non-metallic compound.

As shown in FIG. 2, sample 150 is approximately planar and extends inthe x- and/or y-coordinate directions, and has a thickness d measured inthe z-coordinate direction. Depending upon the method of preparation ofsample 150, the sample can have an approximately constant thickness dacross the planar extent of the sample parallel to the x-y coordinateplane. Alternatively, many real samples corresponding to excised tissuehave non-constant thicknesses d across the planar extent of the sampleparallel to the x-y coordinate plane. In FIG. 2, sample 150—which isshown in cross-section—has a non-constant thickness d measured in thez-coordinate direction.

In general, the thickness d of sample 150 depends upon the method bywhich sample 150 is obtained and processed prior to mounting onsubstrate 152. Certain samples, for example, are microtome-sliced fromlarger blocks of tissue, and can have relatively constant thicknesses.As another example, certain samples are obtained directly via excision,and can have variable thicknesses. The thickness d of sample 150 can befrom 500 nm to 500 microns (e.g., from 1 micron to 300 microns, from 1micron to 200 microns, from 1 micron to 100 microns, from 10 microns to100 microns).

In some embodiments, substrate 152 can also include one or moreadditional coating materials to facilitate adhesion of sample 150 tosubstrate 152. Where no coating 154 is present, the one or moreadditional coating materials can be applied directly to substrate 150,such that the additional coating materials form a layer positionedbetween sample 150 and substrate 152. Where coating 154 is present, theone or more additional coating materials can be applied atop coating154, for example, such that the additional coating materials form alayer positioned between coating 154 and sample 150. Suitable additionalcoating materials to facilitate adhesion of sample 150 include, but arenot limited to, poly-l-lysine.

FIG. 3 shows a schematic cross-sectional diagram of another sample 150positioned on a substrate 152. Substrate 152 optionally includes one ormore conformal coating layers 154 as discussed above. In addition,substrate 152 includes an array of wells 156 corresponding todepressions formed in a surface of substrate 152. Each of the wells 156contains a portion 150 a-150 c of sample 150. In general, whilesubstrate 152 includes three wells 156 containing three separateportions 150 a-150 c of sample 150 in FIG. 3, more generally substrate152 can include any number of wells 156, and sample 150 can beapportioned among any one or more of the wells 156.

Wells 156 (and the portions of sample 150 distributed among wells 156)can generally arranged in a variety of patterns in substrate 152. Forexample, wells 156 can form a linear (i.e., one dimensional) array insubstrate 152. Alternatively, wells 156 can be distributed along onedimension in the plane of substrate 152, with irregular spacings betweensome or all of the wells.

As another example, wells 156 can form a two-dimensional array insubstrate 152, with regular spacings between adjacent wells indirections parallel to both the x- and y-coordinate directions in theplane of substrate 152. Alternatively, in either or both of thedirections parallel to the x- and y-coordinate directions in the planeof substrate 152, at least some of wells 156 can be spaced irregularly.

Where wells 156 form a two-dimensional array in substrate 152, the arraycan take a variety of forms. In some embodiments, the array of wells 156can be a square or rectangular array. In certain embodiments, the arraycan be a hexagonal array, a polar array having radial symmetry, oranother type of array having geometrical symmetry in plane of substrate152.

As discussed above, each of the portions 150 a-150 c of sample 150 caninclude one or more cells. During sample preparation, each portion 150a-150 c can be dispensed or positioned in a corresponding well 156 ofsubstrate 152 to form sample 150. For example, each portion 150 a-150 cof sample 150 can be dispensed into a corresponding well 156 as asuspension of cells in a liquid medium, and the liquid mediumsubsequently removed (e.g., by washing or heating) to leave the cells ineach well 156.

In general, to facilitate various biochemical structural analyses ofsample 150 such as protein expression, sample 150 is labeled withmultiple mass tags. When sample 150 is exposed to primary ion beam 116,the mass tags are ionized and liberated from sample 150. The ionizedmass tags correspond to secondary ions 118 a and form secondary ion beam118 emerging from sample 150. Analysis of the secondary ions 118 apresent in secondary ion beam 118 as a function of the location ofincidence 124 of ion beam 116 on sample 150 by controller 114 yields awealth of information about the biochemical structure of sample 150 ateach of the locations of incidence 124.

A variety of different mass tags can be used in the systems and methodsdisclosed herein. In some embodiments, the mass tags correspond tometallic elements, and more specifically, to lanthanide elements.Lanthanide elements suitable for use as mass tags include, for example,lanthanum, neodymium, samarium, gadolinium, erbium, ytterbium, anddysprosium.

To apply the mass tags to sample 150, each of the mass tags isconjugated to a specific antibody that selectively binds to an antigenreceptor in sample 150. In practice, solutions of each of theantibody-conjugated mass tags are prepared, and then sample 150 islabeled by exposing sample 150 to each of the mass tag solutions. Sample150 is typically exposed to multiple mass tag solutions sequentiallyand/or in parallel so that sample 150 can be labelled with multiple,distinct mass tags.

To prepare suitable mass tag labeling solutions, various methods can beused. For example, primary antibodies conjugated to metallic elementaltags (e.g., lanthanide metal elements) can generally be prepared 100 μgat a time using the MaxPAR antibody conjugation kit (available from DVSSciences, Toronto, Canada) according to the manufacturer's recommendedprotocol. After conjugation, the labeled antibodies can be diluted inCandor PBS Antibody Stabilization solution (available from CandorBioscience GmbH, Wangen, Germany) to a concentration of approximately0.4 mg/mL, and stored long term at approximately 4° C. For preparationof samples consisting of arrays of cells, as shown in FIG. 3, cells insuspension can be augmented with surface marker antibodies and incubatedat room temperature for approximately 30 minutes. Following incubation,cells can be washed twice with the mass tag labeling solutions to labelthe cells. Individual aliquots of the labeled cells, diluted in PBS toyield a desired concentration of cells per unit volume (e.g.,approximately 10⁷ cells/mL), can then be placed in wells 156 and allowedto adhere for approximately 20 minutes. The adhered cells can then begently rinsed with PBS, fixed for approximately 5 minutes in PBS with 2%glutaraldehyde, and rinsed twice with deionized water. Samples can thenbe dehydrated via a graded ethanol series, air dried at roomtemperature, and stored in a vacuum dessicator for at least 24 hoursprior to analysis.

For preparation of intact tissue samples, such as samples obtained frombiopsy, tissue samples can be mounted on substrate 152. Followingmounting, the samples can be baked at approximately 65° C. for 15minutes, deparaffinized in xylene (if obtained from FFPE tissue blocks),and rehydrated via a graded ethanol series. The samples are thenimmersed in epitope retrieval buffer (10 mM sodium citrate, pH 6) andplaced in a pressure cooker (available from Electron MicroscopySciences, Hatfield, Pa.) for approximately 30 minutes. Subsequently, thesamples are rinsed twice with deionized water and once with wash buffer(TBS, 0.1% Tween, pH 7.2). Residual buffer solution can be removed bygently touch the samples with a lint free tissue. The samples are thenincubated with blocking buffer for approximately 30 minutes (TBS, 0.1%Tween, 3% BSA, 10% donkey serum, pH 7.2).

The blocking buffer is then removed and the samples are labeledovernight with the mass tag labeling solutions at 4° C. in a humidifiedchamber. Following labeling, the samples are rinsed twice in washbuffer, postfixed for approximately 5 minutes (PBS, 2% glutaraldehyde),rinsed in deionized water, and stained with Harris hematoxylin for 10seconds. The samples are then dehydrated via graded ethanol series, airdried at room temperature, and stored in a vacuum dessicator for atleast 24 hours prior to analysis.

It should be understood that the above preparative steps are merelyprovided as examples of methods for sample preparation, and thatmodifications to the above sequences of steps also yield samples thatare suitably labeled with mass tags and prepared for MIBI analysis. Inparticular, modifications to be above sequences of preparative steps canbe undertaken based on the nature of the samples (e.g., the type oftissue to which the samples correspond).

(iv) Sample Scanning

To perform multiplexed ion beam imaging following suitable labeling ofsample 150 with multiple mass tags, primary ion beam 116 is directed tomultiple different locations of incidence 124 on sample 150. At eachlocation 124, primary ion beam 116 generates secondary ions 118 a thatcorrespond to the antibody-conjugated mass tags bound to sample 150 atthat location. The secondary ions 118 a—which form secondary ion beam118—are measured and analyzed to determine spatially resolvedinformation about the biochemical structure of sample 150.

A variety of different primary ion beams 116 generated by ion source 102can be used to expose sample 150. In some embodiments, for example,primary ion beam 116 consists of a plurality of oxygen ions (O⁻). Forexample, ion source 102 can be implemented as an oxygen duoplasmatronsource, which generates primary ion beam 116.

To obtain spatially resolved information from sample 150, primary ionbeam 116 is translated across sample 150 to multiple different locationsof incidence 124. The multiple different locations of incidence form atwo-dimensional exposure pattern of primary ion beam 116 in the plane ofsample 150 (i.e., in a plane parallel to the x-y plane). In general, awide variety of different exposure patterns can be used.

In some embodiments, for example, the exposure pattern corresponds to asquare or rectangular array of locations of incidence 124 of primary ionbeam 116 on sample 150. FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram showing a squarearray of locations of incidence 124 of primary ion beam 116 on sample150, forming a square exposure pattern 400 on sample 150. Each row ofexposure pattern 400 includes 10 distinct locations of incidence 124 ofprimary ion beam 116 on sample 150, spaced along the x-coordinatedirection. Each column of exposure pattern 400 includes 10 distinctlocations of incidence 124 of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150, spacedalong the y-coordinate direction. In total, exposure pattern 400includes 100 distinct locations of incidence 124 of primary ion beam116.

In general, each row and column of exposure pattern 400 can include anynumber of distinct locations of incidence 124 of primary ion beam 116 onsample 150. For example, in some embodiments, each row and/or column ofexposure pattern 400 includes 10 or more (e.g., 20 or more, 30 or more,50 or more, 100 or more, 200 or more, 300 or more, 500 or more, 1000 ormore) distinct locations of incidence 124 of primary ion beam 116.

To expose sample 150 to primary ion beam 116 according to exposurepattern, the different locations of incidence 124 constituting exposurepattern 400 can generally be visited in any order by primary ion beam116. In some embodiments, however, the different locations of incidence124 are visited in certain sequences. For example, the square exposurepattern 400 in FIG. 4A can be implemented such that primary ion beam 116is scanned along each row of the exposure pattern in sequence. Aftervisiting each location of incidence 124 in a single row in sequence(e.g., by translating primary ion beam 116 parallel to the x-coordinatedirection), primary ion beam 116 is translated parallel to they-coordinate direction to the next row in exposure pattern 400, and thenvisits each location of incidence 124 in the next row in sequence.

This example sequence of exposures corresponds to a pattern ofraster-scanning of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150. As shown in FIG.4A, locations 402 a-402 j are each visited in sequential order byprimary ion beam 116, followed by locations 404 a-404 j in sequentialorder, and so on in sequence until the final row of locations 420 a-420j is visited in sequential order.

Exposure pattern 400 includes a total of 100 distinct locations ofincidence of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150. More generally,however, exposure pattern 400 can include any number of distinctlocations of incidence of primary ion beam 116. In certain embodiments,for example, exposure pattern 400 includes 25 or more (e.g., 50 or more,100 or more, 200 or more, 500 or more, 1000 or more, 5000 or more, 10000or more, 20000 or more, 30000 or more, 50000 or more, 100000 or more,200000 or more, 500000 or more) distinct locations of incidence ofprimary ion beam 116 on sample 150.

A maximum dimension of exposure pattern 400 measured in a directionparallel to the x-coordinate direction is Lx, and a maximum dimension ofexposure pattern 400 measured in a direction parallel to they-coordinate direction is Ly. In general, Lx and Ly are selected asdesired according to the spatial dimensions of the portion of sample 150to be analyzed. For example, in some embodiments, Lx and Ly can eachindependently be 25 microns or more (e.g., 50 microns or more, 100microns or more, 200 microns or more, 300 microns or more, 400 micronsor more, 500 microns or more, 700 microns or more, 1.0 mm or more, 1.5mm or more, 2.0 mm or more, 2.5 mm or more, 3.0 mm or more, 5.0 mm ormore).

Exposure pattern 400 in FIG. 4A is a square pattern. More generally,however, the exposure pattern formed by the set of locations ofincidence 124 of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150 need not be squareor rectangular. Two-dimensional exposure patterns having a variety ofdifferent shapes and spacings between locations of incidence of primaryion beam 116 can be implemented. FIG. 4B is a schematic diagram showingan exposure pattern 400 in which rows of the exposure pattern are offsetspatially in the x-direction, forming an offset array. FIG. 4C is aschematic diagram showing a radial exposure pattern 400 in whichindividual locations of incidence of primary ion beam 116 are exposed insequence along radial lines 422 a-422 h.

Returning to FIG. 4A, when sample 150 is exposed to primary ion beam 116according to exposure pattern 400, the exposure can be implemented basedon a single execution of exposure pattern 400 or based on multipleexecutions of exposure pattern 400. In other words, in some embodiments,sample 150 is exposed to primary ion beam 116 by directing primary ionbeam 116 to visit each location in exposure pattern 400 once. In certainembodiments, sample 150 is exposed to primary ion beam 116 by directingprimary ion beam 116 to visit each location in exposure pattern 400multiple times. Typically, for example, after primary ion beam 116 hasvisited each location in exposure pattern 400 once, primary ion beam 116follows a second exposure sequence in which the beam visits thelocations in exposure pattern 400 a second time. Subsequent exposuresequences can be implemented in which primary ion beam 116 repeats thesequence of exposures defined by exposure pattern 400 as many times asdesired.

In general, the accuracy and reproducibility of the ion counts/currentsmeasured by detection apparatus 112 depends on number of secondary ions118 a generated by the interaction between primary ion beam 116 andsample 150. The number of secondary ions generated at each location ofincidence 124 of primary ion beam 116 is in turn a function of the totalprimary ion dose at each location. As the primary ion dose increases,all other factors being held constant, the number of secondary ionsgenerated also increases. As discussed above, the total dose of primaryions at each location of incidence 124 can be delivered via a singleexposure to primary ion beam 116 at each location, or via multipleexposures to primary ion beam 116 at each location (i.e., by repeatingexposure pattern 400).

In summary, as used herein, the term “exposure pattern”—examples ofwhich are represented schematically by exposure patterns 400 in FIGS.4A-4C—refers to the set of spatial locations of incidence of primary ionbeam 116 on sample 150, as well as the set of dwell times (also referredto as exposure times), ion doses, ion beam currents, and other exposureparameters associated with each of the spatial locations of incidence ofprimary ion beam 116 on sample 150. In some embodiments, controller 114maintains information corresponding to the exposure pattern in avolatile and/or non-volatile memory unit. During operation of system100, controller 114 can modify the exposure pattern—by modifying the setof locations of incidence of primary ion beam 116 associated with theexposure pattern, and/or by modifying any of the exposure parametersassociated with the set of spatial locations—in response to ioncounts/currents measured by detection apparatus 112, and/or to adjustperformance-related metrics for system 100 such as signal resolution,signal-to-noise ratio, and data reproducibility and/or accuracy.

In some embodiments, to control the location of incidence 124 of primaryion beam 116 on sample 150, controller 114 translates stage 106 in thex- and y-coordinate directions via control signals transmitted on signalline 120 d. With primary ion beam 116 directed to a static location,motion of stage 106 in the x- and y-coordinate directions effectstranslations of sample 150 in the x- and y-coordinate directionsrelative to the location of primary ion beam 116, thereby moving thelocation of incidence 124 of primary ion beam 116.

Alternatively, or in addition, in certain embodiments controller 114adjusts one or more elements of ion beam optics 104 to translate thelocation of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150. FIG. 5 is a schematicdiagram showing an example of a portion of ion beam optics 104. Ion beamoptics 104 include a housing 502 that encloses a variety of components,including focusing elements 504 and 506 (implemented as annularelectrostatic lenses), a first pair of deflection electrodes (only oneof which, electrode 508 a, is shown in FIG. 5 due to the perspective ofthe figure), and a second pair of deflection electrodes 510 a and 510 b.Ion beam optics 104 also include beam blocking elements 512.

Controller 114 is electrically connected to focusing elements 504 and506, to the first pair of deflection electrodes (shown via a connectionto electrode 508 a in FIG. 5), and to the second pair of deflectionelectrodes 510 a and 510 b, via signal line 120 b. Controller 114adjusts electrical potentials applied to each of the elements to whichit is connected by transmitting appropriate signals on signal line 120b.

During operation of system 100, primary ion beam 116 enters ion beamoptics 104 through an aperture (not shown in FIG. 5) in housing 502,propagating nominally along central axis 122 of ion beam optics 104. Byapplying suitable electrical potentials to annular focusing elements 504and 506, controller 114 adjusts the focal position of primary ion beam116 along axis 122.

Controller 114 can adjust the location of incidence 124 of primary ionbeam 116 on sample 150 by adjusting electrical potentials applied to thefirst and second pairs of deflection electrodes via control signalstransmitted along signal line 120 b. For example, by adjusting theelectrical potentials applied to the first pair of deflection electrodes(electrode 508 a and a cooperating second electrode not shown in FIG.5), primary ion beam 116 is deflected in a direction parallel to thex-coordinate direction. Thus, to scan primary ion beam 116 in adirection parallel to the x-coordinate direction in an exposure pattern,controller 114 adjusts the electrical potentials applied to the firstpair of deflection electrodes.

Similarly, by adjusting the electrical potentials applied to the secondpair of deflection electrodes, 510 a and 510 b, a component of theresulting deflection of primary ion beam 116 is parallel to they-coordinate direction. Accordingly, to scan primary ion beam 116 in adirection parallel to the y-coordinate direction in an exposure pattern,controller 114 adjusts the electrical potentials applied to the secondpair of deflection electrodes.

To prevent primary ion beam 116 from being incident on sample 150,controller 114 can adjust the electrical potentials applied to either orboth pairs of deflection electrodes to cause primary ion beam 116 to beintercepted by a beam blocking element. For example, by applyingsuitable electrical potentials to electrodes 510 a and 510 b, primaryion beam 116 can be deflected such that the beam is blocked by beamblocking elements 512 in ion beam optics 104. Beam blocking elements canalso be positioned external to ion beam optics 104, and the electricalpotentials applied to deflection electrodes adjusted to steer primaryion beam 116 to be incident on the external beam blocking elements.

(v) Focal Length Adjustment

Sample images that are acquired using the methods described above can bevisualized in various ways. In many applications, two or more images areoverlaid to facilitate visualization of different sample features in acorrelative manner. Images can also be analyzed to detect certain imagefeatures (e.g., cellular features such as nuclei, cell walls, andorganelles), and manipulated using various algorithms (including, butnot limited to, linear and nonlinear algorithms for operations such asstretching and alignment. All of these operations benefit from sampleimages that are well-focused across the entire image. In contrast, whenedges or other features of such images are blurred or captured at lowresolution, software-based manipulation of such images is made moredifficult.

As shown in FIG. 4A, in some embodiments, primary ion beam 116 can bescanned over a relatively large exposure region on the surface of sample150. If ion beam optics 104 are adjusted such that primary ion beam 116is focused to a reference location that is coincident with the center ofthe exposure pattern in FIG. 4A, then absent further focal lengthadjustment, when primary ion beam 116 is displaced significantly fromthe reference location (e.g., toward the edges of the exposure patternin FIG. 4A), primary ion beam 116 is not focused at its location ofincidence 124 on the surface of sample 150. As a result, imageinformation obtained from location 124 can be blurred and/or poorlyresolved.

Defocusing of primary ion beam 116 as a function of the location ofincidence 124 is further exacerbated by the angular orientation ofprimary ion beam 116 relative to the surface of sample 150. As shown inFIG. 1, primary ion beam 116 can be oriented at an angle relative to thenormal to the surface of sample 150 upon which primary ion beam 116 isincident. The “tilted” orientation of primary ion beam 116 relative tosample 150 is useful for various reasons. An important reason for usingsuch a tilted orientation is to increase production of secondary ions118 a from sample 150. It has been observed that the yield of secondaryions 118 a is a function of the angular orientation of primary ion beam116 relative to the surface of sample 150. In general, as the angle ofprimary ion beam 116 relative to the normal to the surface of sample 150increases, the secondary ion yield also increases. Accordingly, in someembodiments, primary ion beam 116 is incident on the surface of sample150 at a non-normal angle.

Another reason for orienting primary ion beam 116 in such a manner is toreduce backscattering of primary ions from beam 116 into detectionapparatus 112. As shown in FIG. 1, due to the orientation of primary ionbeam 116 relative to sample 150, primary ions that collide with and arescattered from the surface of sample 150 are scattered in a variety ofdirections, most of which are not along the direction of the surfacenormal to sample 150. As a result, most of the scattered primary ions donot enter detection apparatus 112, and therefore do not interfere withmeasured signals of interest from secondary ions 118 a. As the anglebetween primary ion beam 116 and the normal to the sample surfaceincreases, scattering of primary ions along the direction of the surfacenormal is reduced.

The relative orientation between primary ion beam 116 and sample 150 isshown in FIG. 6. In FIG. 6, sample 150 is positioned in the x-ycoordinate plane, and primary ion beam 116 is scanned over the surfaceof sample 150 in an exposure pattern in the x-y plane. Surface normal602, which is orthogonal to the surface of sample 150 on which primaryion beam 116 is incident, is oriented in a direction parallel to thez-axis.

As discussed above, to increase the yield of secondary ions 118 a andreduce the number of scattered primary ions that are detected bydetection apparatus 112, primary ion beam 116 is tilted in the y-z planeand inclined at an angle α relative to surface normal 602. In general,primary ion beam 116 is not significantly tilted in the x-z plane. Inother words, when the location of incidence 124 of primary ion beam 116corresponds to a typical reference location (e.g., at the center of anexposure pattern on the surface of sample 150), primary ion beam 116propagates in the y-z plane, with no significant component ofpropagation in the x-z plane.

In general, the angle of inclination α can be selected as desired toadjust the yield of secondary ions 118 a and reduce detection ofbackscattered primary ions. In some embodiments, for example, α is 10degrees or more (e.g., 20 degrees or more, 30 degrees or more, 35degrees or more, 40 degrees or more, 45 degrees or more, 50 degrees ormore, 55 degrees or more, 60 degrees or more, 70 degrees or more, 80degrees or more, 85 degrees or more, 88 degrees or more, 89 degrees ormore). In certain embodiments, α is between 10 degrees and 85 degrees(e.g., between 20 degrees and 85 degrees, between 20 degrees and 80degrees, between 20 degrees and 70 degrees, between 30 degrees and 70degrees, between 30 degrees and 60 degrees). In some embodiments, α isbetween 42 degrees and 48 degrees (i.e., approximately 45 degrees).

Referring to FIGS. 1, 4A, and 5, to direct primary ion beam 116 todifferent locations along the x-direction of exposure pattern 400,controller 114 adjusts the electrical potential applied to deflectionelectrode 508 a (and its cooperating electrode not shown in FIG. 5),thereby deflecting primary ion beam 116 in a direction parallel to thex-direction. Deflecting primary ion beam 116 in this manner causes anangular displacement of primary ion beam 116 from axis 122 by at most afew degrees, depending upon the magnitude of L_(x), the maximumdimension of exposure pattern 400 in the x-direction. Relatively minorangular displacements of such a magnitude typically do not result insignificant defocusing of primary ion beam 116 for translations of thebeam in the x-direction.

However, the situation is different for translations in the y-direction.To translate primary ion beam 116 along the y-direction of exposurepattern 400, controller 114 adjusts the electrical potentials applied todeflection electrodes 510 a and 510 b, thereby deflecting primary ionbeam 116 such that a component of the deflection occurs in they-direction. However, because primary ion beam 116 is already inclinedat a significant angle α relative to surface normal 602, deflectingprimary ion beam 116 by adjusting electrodes 510 a and 510 b can resultin significant defocusing of primary ion beam 116 at different locationsalong the y-direction of exposure pattern 400.

The defocusing of primary ion beam 116 along the y-direction is shown inFIG. 7, which is a schematic diagram illustrating a set of locations ofincidence of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150. The locations ofincidence 702, 704, 706, 708, 710, 712, 714, 716, and 718 correspond toa “column” of locations of incidence in an exposure pattern and aredisplaced from one another in the y-direction, but are aligned in thex-direction.

Location 702 is at the center of the exposure pattern. Ion source 102and ion beam optics 104 are adjusted so that when primary ion beam 116is incident on the surface of sample 150 at location 702, the focus ofprimary ion beam 116 coincides with the surface of sample 150 (or moregenerally, with any desired plane parallel to the surface of sample 150and displaced from the sample surface in the z-direction).

Due to the angle of inclination α, as primary ion beam 116 is displacedfrom location 702 to locations 704, 706, 708, and 710—each of which issuccessively further from location 702 in the y-direction—the focalposition of primary ion beam 116 is displaced from the surface of sample150 due to the successively longer path length traveled by primary ionbeam 116 to reach the sample surface. The successively longer pathlengths are the result of the angle of inclination α. As α increases, sotoo does the defocusing of primary ion beam 116 as a function ofdisplacement from location 702 along the y-direction.

Line 720 in FIG. 7 shows the actual locations of focus of primary ionbeam 116 as a function of displacement from location 702 along they-direction. For each of locations 704, 706, 708, and 710, the focalposition of primary ion beam 116 is located above the surface of sample150.

For locations 712, 714, 716, and 718, which are each displaced fromlocation 702 in the opposite direction (i.e., the −y direction), thesituation is reversed. As primary ion beam 116 is successively deflectedto each of these locations, the path length traveled by the primary ionbeam to reach sample 150 is successively shorter due to the angle ofinclination α. As a result, for each of locations 712, 714, 716, and718, the focal position of primary ion beam 116 is located below thesurface of sample 150.

To compensate at least partially for defocusing of primary ion beam 116among different locations in an exposure pattern on sample 150,controller 114 is configured to adjust the focus of primary ion beam 116as the beam is scanned across sample 150. FIG. 8 is a flow chart 800showing a series of example steps implemented by controller 114 toadjust the focal length of primary ion beam 116 during scanning. In afirst step 802, controller 114 translates primary ion beam 116 to aregion on the sample corresponding to a location in an exposure pattern.For example, referring to FIG. 4A, the region can correspond to any ofthe locations defined in exposure pattern 400.

Next, in step 804, controller 114 determines the focal length adjustmentof the primary ion beam based on the location selected in step 802. Insome embodiments, the focal length adjustment is determined based on thedisplacement in the y-direction of primary ion beam 116 from a referencelocation on the surface of sample 150 at which the focus of primary ionbeam 116 is coincident with the surface of sample 150 (or with a planeparallel to the surface and displaced in a direction parallel to thez-direction). Referring to FIG. 7, with location 702 taken as thereference location, the focal length adjustment can be determined bycontroller 114 for a location such as location 704 based on the distancebetween locations 704 and 702, measured in the y-direction. In general,this distance is known to controller 114 from the exposure pattern,which specifies the distances between exposure locations.

As discussed above, defocusing is generally more strongly pronounced fordisplacements along the y-direction of primary ion beam 116 due to theangle of inclination α. As a result, focal length adjustments can bebased only on the displacement of primary ion beam 116 from a referencelocation in the y-direction. However, in certain embodiments, controller114 can be configured to perform focal length adjustments based ondisplacements of primary ion beam 116 from a reference location in boththe x- and y-directions. Information about the displacement of primaryion beam 116 along both the x- and y-directions from a referencelocation is available to controller 114 from the exposure pattern, asdiscussed above.

To determine the focal length adjustment, controller 114 can refer topreviously measured calibration information. Such information caninclude, for example, information about electrical potentials that canbe applied to focusing elements 504 and 506 to adjust the focal lengthof primary ion beam 116 based on its location within the exposurepattern. Where focal length adjustment is performed only fordisplacements of primary ion beam 116 in the y-direction from areference location, the information can include electrical potentialsthat can be applied for various displacements along the y-direction. Ineffect, the calibration information corresponds to a one-dimensional“map” of corrective electrical potentials as a function of displacementin the y-direction.

Where focal length adjustment is performed for displacements of primaryion beam 116 in both the x- and y-directions, the calibrationinformation can effectively correspond to a two-dimensional map ofcorrective electrical potentials for each location in the exposurepattern, as a function of displacement in both the x- and y-directions.

In addition, or as an alternative, controller 114 can determine thefocal length adjustment by first determining the change in path lengthof primary ion beam 116 due to displacement of primary ion beam 116 fromthe reference location on the sample. The change in path length can beestimated by controller 114 based on the angle of inclination α, thedisplacement of primary ion beam 116 along the y-direction (and alongthe x-direction as well, if adjustment for defocusing is to occur forsuch displacements), and other geometrical features describing theincidence of primary ion beam 116 on sample 150.

After the change in path length relative to the path lengthcorresponding to incidence at the reference location has beendetermined, controller 114 then determines suitable electricalpotentials to apply to focusing elements 504 and 506 to adjust the focallength of primary ion beam 116 to account for the change in path length.The determination of suitable electrical potentials can be based, forexample, on a set of default potentials corresponding to the referencelocation, as well as information about the magnitudes of changes inpotentials required to change the focal length of primary ion beam 116by known amounts. Controller 114 uses this information to determinesuitable corrections to the electrical potentials applied to focusingelements 504 and 506 to account for the change in path length of primaryion beam 116 due to deflection of the beam away from the referencelocation.

Next, in step 806, the focal length of primary ion beam 116 is adjustedby controller 114 based on the focal length adjustment determined instep 804. As discussed above, the focal length adjustment effectivelycorresponds to electrical potentials (or changes to electricalpotentials) applied to focusing elements (e.g., elements 504 and 506) ofion optics 104 and/or ion source 102. Controller 114 applies thecorrected electrical potentials to perform the focal length adjustment.

Then, in step 808, controller 114 exposes the sample to primary ion beam116 with the focal length of the beam adjusted, generating secondaryions 118 a. The secondary ions are detected by detection apparatus 112and the measured signals from detection apparatus 112 are analyzed bycontroller 114 to determine mass spectral information about sample 150.Various aspects of this process have been described above.

In step 810, controller 114 determines whether all regions on the samplecorresponding to the locations in the exposure pattern have beenexposed. If so, the procedure terminates at step 812. If not, controlreturns to step 802 and controller 114 translates primary ion beam 116to a new region of the sample corresponding to a different location inthe exposure pattern.

As discussed above, in certain embodiments, focal length adjustment ofprimary ion beam 116 is performed by controller 114 only fordisplacements of primary ion beam 116 from a reference location thatoccur in a direction parallel to the y-direction. Because of the angleof incidence α, displacements along the y-direction typically result inmore significant defocusing of the beam than displacements along thex-direction.

Restricting focal length adjustments to only y-direction displacementscan provide an important advantage. Typically, adjusting the focallength of primary ion beam 116 is relatively slow as it involvesadjusting the electrical potentials applied to focusing elements 504 and506. When the exposure pattern includes a large number of locations,adjusting the focal length of primary ion beam 116 for each location istime-consuming and can significantly increase the time required toobtain a suitable set of mass spectral information for sample 150. Byadjusting the focal length only after displacements in the y-direction,a considerable reduction in measurement time can be realized.

A further reduction in measurement time can be realized by scanningprimary ion beam 116 across sample 150 along the length of each “row” ofthe exposure pattern in the x-direction before displacing the primaryion beam in the y-direction to the next row of the exposure pattern. Byscanning the primary ion beam in such a manner, the x-directioneffectively corresponds to the “fast” scanning direction and they-direction corresponds to the “slow” scanning direction. Displacingprimary ion beam 116 in this fashion minimizes the number ofdisplacements in the y-direction and, consequently, the number of focallength adjustments of primary ion beam 116 performed by controller 114.As a result, a reduction in measurement time (relative to displacementpatterns involving more interleaved displacements in the x- andy-directions) can be realized.

Such considerations are particularly important when the maximumdimensions of the exposure pattern in the x- and/or y-direction arerelatively large (e.g., L_(x) and/or L_(y) are 100 microns or more, 200microns, or more, 500 microns or more, or even more). Large exposurepatterns can include hundreds or thousands of locations of incidence ofthe primary ion beam on the sample. Exposing the sample at each of thelocations—and in some cases multiple times at each location—is alreadytime-consuming. By scanning the sample such that the number ofdisplacements of the primary ion beam in the “slow” direction isminimized (or reduced), the total measurement time for large exposurepatterns does not become too large.

In the foregoing discussion, for purposes of clarity, primary ion beam116 was inclined in the y-z plane, and the exposure pattern on thesurface of the sample—as shown for example in FIG. 4A—included locationsforming an array extending the x- and y-directions. More generally,however, the locations in the exposure pattern do not necessarily forman array aligned with the x- and y-coordinate directions.

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram showing a top view of a sample 150.Primary ion beam 116 propagates in the y-z plane and is inclined at anangle α relative to a surface normal of sample 150, as described above.A projection 900 of a direction of incidence of primary ion beam 116 atreference location 902 within an exposure pattern is also shown. Theexposure pattern in FIG. 9 consists of reference location 902 andadditional locations 904, which form an orthogonal array of locations onsample 150. The locations extend along directions 906 and 908.

In FIG. 9, direction 906 is oriented at an angle β to the y-axis (i.e.,to the direction of projection 900) and direction 908 is oriented at anangle γ to the y-axis. That is, direction 906 corresponds to the “slow”scanning direction of the exposure pattern, while direction 908corresponds to the “fast” scanning direction of the exposure pattern.The discussion above applies to circumstances in which primary ion beam116 is scanned across the surface of sample 150 according to an exposurepattern that is rotated relative to the x- and y-directions as shown inFIG. 9. That is, focal length adjustments can be performed afterdisplacements along only direction 906, or after displacements alongeither or both of directions 906 and 908.

In some embodiments, β is relatively small, such as 20 degrees or less(e.g., 15 degrees or less, 10 degrees or less, 5 degrees or less). β caneven be sufficiently small (e.g., 3 degrees or less, 2 degrees or less,1 degree or less, or even zero), such that direction 906 isapproximately parallel to the y-direction.

In some embodiments, γ is relatively large, such as 70 degrees or more(e.g., 75 degrees or more, 80 degrees or more, 85 degrees or more). γcan even be sufficiently large (e.g., 87 degrees or more, 88 degrees ormore, 89 degrees or more, or even 90 degrees), such that direction 908is approximately orthogonal to the y-direction.

In the foregoing discussion, controller 114 adjusted the focal length ofprimary ion beam 116 by changing electrical potentials applied tofocusing elements (e.g., focusing elements 504 and 506) in ion optics104 and/or ion source 102. In certain embodiments, adjustments to thefocal length of primary ion beam 116 can also involve adjusting thenumerical aperture of primary ion beam 116. Adjusting the numericalaperture of an ion beam changes the beam's depth of focus. Inparticular, as the numerical aperture increases, the depth of focusdecreases and the ion beam can be focused to a region that is thinner ina direction parallel to the direction of propagation of the ion beam.

In some embodiments, ion beam optics 104 include an adjustable aperture514 as shown in FIG. 5. Aperture 514 is connected to controller 114 viasignal line 120 b and controller 114 can increase or decrease thediameter of aperture 514 via suitable control signals transmitted alongsignal line 120 b. To increase the numerical aperture of primary ionbeam 116 and shorten the depth of focus, controller 114 increases thediameter of aperture 514. In contrast, to reduce the numerical apertureand increase the depth of focus of primary ion beam 116, controller 114reduces the diameter of aperture 514.

Changing the depth of focus of primary ion beam 116 has the effect ofimplementing “fine” adjustments to the focal length of the beam, wheredirect adjustments to the focal length (e.g., via elements 504 and 506)might be considered “coarse” adjustments to the focal length. In certainembodiments, controller 114 uses one or the other (or a combination) ofcoarse and fine adjustments of the focal length of primary ion beam 116to account for displacements of the beam from a reference location in anexposure pattern. For example, fine adjustments of the focal length canbe used for displacements in the x-direction only, while coarseadjustments (or a combination of fine and coarse adjustments) can beused for displacements in the y-direction (or the x- and y-directions).

In some embodiments, in addition to performing focal length adjustmentof primary ion beam 116, controller 114 is configured to adjust variouselements of ion source 102 and/or ion beam optics 104 to correct forother aberrations. For example, in certain embodiments, controller 114is configured to correct for one or more aberrations including, but notlimited to, spherical aberration, coma, distortion, field curvature, andchromatic aberration.

To implement such corrections, referring to FIG. 5, ion beam optics 104can include a plurality of ion optical lens elements (shown as fourelements, 516, 518, 520, and 522, but more generally including anynumber of such elements), each of which is connected via signal line 102b to controller 114. To correct for aberrations, controller 114 appliessuitable electrical potentials to one or more of the lens elements.Various aspects and features associated with correcting aberrations inelectron optical systems are disclosed, for example, in Rose et al.,“Aberration Correction in Electron Microscopy,” Proc. IEEE ParticleAccelerator Conference, pp. 44-48 (2005), the entire contents of whichare incorporated by reference herein. Similar considerations apply toion optical systems.

By implementing optical elements for aberration correction in ion beamoptics 104, more inexpensive ion lenses can be used in ion beam optics104 which reduces the overall cost of system 100. Typically, moreinexpensive lenses are not as well corrected for various types ofaberrations. However, if such corrections are implemented via otherelements in ion beam optics 104, the use of inexpensive lenses is moreviable.

(vi) Hardware and Software Implementations

As discussed above, any of the steps and functions described herein canbe executed by controller 114. In general, controller 114 can include asingle electronic processor, multiple electronic processors, one or moreintegrated circuits (e.g., application specific integrated circuits),and any combination of the foregoing elements. Software- and/orhardware-based instructions are executed by controller 114 to performthe steps and functions discussed herein. Controller 114 can include adata storage system (including memory and/or storage elements), at leastone input device, and at least one output device, such as a display.Each set of software-based instructions, embodied as a software programstored on a tangible, non-transient storage medium (e.g., an opticalstorage medium such as a CD-ROM or DVD, a magnetic storage medium suchas a hard disk, or a persistent solid state storage medium) or device,can be implemented in a high-level procedural or object-orientedprogramming language, or an assembly or machine language.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

A number of embodiments have been described. Nevertheless, it will beunderstood that various modifications may be made without departing fromthe spirit and scope of the disclosure. Accordingly, other embodimentsare within the scope of the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method, comprising: exposing a biologicalsample to an ion beam that is incident on the sample at a first angle toa plane of the sample by translating a position of the ion beam on thesample in a first direction relative to a projection of a direction ofincidence of the ion beam on the sample; after each translation of theion beam in the first direction, adjusting a focal length of an ionsource that generates the ion beam; and measuring and analyzingsecondary ions generated from the sample by the ion beam afteradjustment of the focal length to determine mass spectral informationfor the sample, wherein the sample is labeled with one or more mass tagsand the mass spectral information comprises populations of the mass tagsat locations of the sample.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein an anglebetween the first direction and the projection of the direction ofincidence of the ion beam on the sample is 20 degrees or less.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein translating the position of the ion beamcomprises adjusting an angle of the ion beam relative to an axis of theion source.
 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising translating theposition of the ion beam on the sample in a second direction relative tothe projection of the direction of incidence of the ion beam on thesample, wherein an angle between the second direction and the projectionof the direction of incidence of the ion beam on the sample is 70degrees or more.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the position of theion beam is translated across the sample in a two-dimensional exposurepattern, wherein a maximum length of the two-dimensional exposurepattern in the first direction is at least 100 microns, and wherein amaximum length of the two-dimensional exposure pattern in the firstdirection is at least 500 microns.
 6. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising adjusting the focal length of the ion source by adjusting anumerical aperture of the ion source.
 7. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising adjusting the ion source to reduce spherical aberration ofthe ion beam on the sample by adjusting voltages applied to one or moreelectrodes in the ion source.
 8. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising adjusting the ion source to compensate for curvature of afocal plane of the ion source by adjusting voltages applied to one ormore electrodes in the ion source.
 9. The method of claim 4, furthercomprising adjusting the focal length of the ion source after at leastsome translations of the position of the ion beam in the seconddirection.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more mass tagscomprise at least one type of antibody-conjugated lanthanide element,and wherein the at least some of the secondary ions comprise at leastone type of lanthanide ion.
 11. A system, comprising: an ion sourceconfigured to generate an ion beam; a stage positioned to support abiological sample; an ion detector configured to detect ions generatedfrom the sample; and a controller connected to the ion source, thestage, and the ion detector, and configured so that during operation,the controller: directs the ion source to expose the sample to the ionbeam, wherein the ion beam is incident on the sample at a first angle toa plane of the sample, and wherein the controller directs the ion sourceto translate a position of the ion beam on the sample in a firstdirection relative to a projection of a direction of incidence of theion beam on the sample; adjusts a focal length of the ion source aftereach translation of the ion beam in the first direction; receives asignal from the ion detector comprising information about secondary ionsgenerated from the sample in response to the ion beam exposure afteradjustment of the focal length; and analyzes the signal to determinemass spectral information for the sample, wherein the sample is labeledwith one or more mass tags and the mass spectral information comprisespopulations of the mass tags at locations of the sample.
 12. The systemof claim 11, wherein the controller is configured to direct the ionsource to translate the position of the ion beam on the sample byadjusting an angle of the ion beam relative to an axis of the ionsource.
 13. The system of claim 11, wherein the controller is configuredto direct the ion source to translate the position of the ion beam onthe sample in a second direction relative to the projection of thedirection of incidence of the ion beam on the sample.
 14. The system ofclaim 13, wherein the controller is configured to direct the ion sourceto translate the position of the ion beam across the sample in atwo-dimensional exposure pattern, wherein a maximum length of thetwo-dimensional exposure pattern in the first direction is at least 100microns, and wherein a maximum length of the two-dimensional exposurepattern in the first direction is at least 500 microns.
 15. The systemof claim 11, wherein the first angle is between 30 degrees and 60degrees.
 16. The system of claim 11, wherein the controller isconfigured to adjust the focal length of the ion source by adjusting anumerical aperture of the ion source.
 17. The system of claim 11,wherein the controller is configured to adjust the ion source to reducespherical aberration of the ion beam on the sample by adjusting voltagesapplied to one or more electrodes in the ion source.
 18. The system ofclaim 11, wherein the controller is configured to adjust the ion sourceto compensate for curvature of a focal plane of the ion source byadjusting voltages applied to one or more electrodes in the ion source.19. The system of claim 13, wherein the controller is configured toadjust the focal length of the ion source after at least sometranslations of the position of the ion beam in the second direction.20. A method, comprising: exposing a first set of regions of abiological sample positioned in a sample plane to an ion beam from anion source, wherein an axis of the ion source is aligned along a firstdirection inclined at a first angle relative to the sample plane, andwherein exposing the first set of regions comprises translating alocation of incidence of the ion beam on the sample along a seconddirection in the sample plane that is approximately orthogonal to aprojection of the first direction onto the sample plane; translating thelocation of incidence of the ion beam on the sample along a thirddirection in the sample plane that is approximately parallel to theprojection of the first direction onto the sample plane; adjusting afocal length of the ion source based on the translated location ofincidence of the ion beam on the sample along the third direction; andafter adjusting the focal length, exposing a second set of regions ofthe biological sample to the ion beam, wherein exposing the second setof regions comprises translating the location of incidence of the ionbeam on the sample along the second direction in the sample plane,wherein the biological sample is labeled with one or more mass tags, andexposing at least some of the first and second pluralities of regions tothe ion beam generates secondary ions corresponding to the one or moremass tags.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein exposing the first andsecond sets of regions comprises translating the location of incidenceof the ion beam on the sample along the second direction over a lengthof 100 microns or more.
 22. The method of claim 20, wherein translatingthe location of incidence of the ion beam on the sample along the seconddirection comprises adjusting an angle of the ion beam relative to theaxis of the ion source.
 23. The method of claim 20, further comprisingexposing additional sets of regions of the biological sample to the ionbeam by: translating the location of incidence of the ion beam on thesample along the third direction prior to exposing each additional setof regions; adjusting the focal length of the ion source; and exposingan additional set of regions of the biological sample to the ion beam,wherein exposing the additional set of regions comprises translating thelocation of incidence of the ion beam on the sample along the seconddirection in the sample plane.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein thefirst, second, and additional sets of regions form a two-dimensionalexposure pattern of the ion beam on the sample, and wherein a length ofthe exposure pattern measured in the third direction is 100 microns ormore.
 25. The method of claim 20, further comprising adjusting the focallength of the ion source between exposing each one of the first set ofregions to the ion beam and between exposing each one of the second setof regions to the ion beam.